Notes on
Swami Prabhavananda. (1960). The spiritual heritage of India. Hollywood, CA: Vedanta Society of Southern California. [Indian edition, 1977 (reprinted 1999), Chennai: Ramakrishna Math.]
CONTENTS
Introduction.
Ch 1. The Vedas: General aspects.
Ch 2. Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas.
Ch 3. Upanisads [Preliminary Considerations; Brahman; Atman; Identity of Brahman and Atman; Realization of Brahman; The Path to Realization; Karma and Reincarnation; Selected Passages from the Upanisads].
Ch 4. The auxiliary scriptures.
Ch 5. The Bhagavad-Gita.
Ch 6. The Smrtis, the Puranas, the Tantras.
Ch 7-8. Jainism; Buddhism.
Ch 9. The six systems of thought: General remarks.
Ch 10-11. Nyaya-Vaisesika; The Samkhya system.
Ch 12. The Yoga System of Patanjali.
Ch 13-14. The Purva Mimamsa; The Uttara Mimamsa or the Vedanta Sutras.
Ch 15-16. Gaudapada; Samkara.
Ch 17-23. Bhaskara; Yamuna; Râmânuja; Nimbarka; Madhwa; Vallabha; Sri Caitanya.
Ch 24. Sri Ramakrsna.
Ch 25. Epitome.
INTRODUCTION
Darsana (philosophy) means seeing or experience. God and the soul can be experienced by all humanity.
Three states of consciousness-waking, dream, and dreamless sleep-and turiya, the fourth or transcendental state realizable by all (Mandukya Upanisad).
Turiya must be:
1. Related to arthe anupalabdhe, something that is otherwise unknown and unknowable.
2. Beyond and above, but in tune with reason.
Orthodox and unorthodox systems of Indian philosophy-classification based on accepting the authority of the Vedas.
Charge of pessimism against Indian philosophy-unjustified since dissatisfaction with existing suffering is accompanied by striving towards moksa.
Spiritual perfection can be attained here and now. Unlimited number of births available for the same.
Methods of attaining moksa-hearing, reasoning, meditating.
Qualifications required for a seeker:
1. Discrimination between real and unreal.
2. Detachment from selfish enjoyments (the unreal).
3. The six treasures of life-tranquillity of mind, self-control, patience, poise, burning faith in things of the spirit, self-surrender.
4. Thirst for moksa.
Indian psychology is an integral part of Indian philosophy (or religion). Ethics is the foundation of Indian philosophy.
Indian philosophy is thus not a mere way of thinking but a way of life, a way of light, and a way of truth. To become a philosopher is to become transformed in life, renewed in mind, and baptized in spirit.
1. THE VEDAS: GENERAL ASPECTS
Vedas, in one sense, stands for nothing less than Divine Truth itself. Regarded in this aspect, Vedas are infinite and eternal.
But it is the Vedas in the concrete sense of scriptures with which alone we are henceforth concerned.
Rk, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Veda-each Veda is divided into work and knowledge (Upanisad) portions. The work portion in each Veda is further divided into Samhitas, Brahmanas, and Aranyakas.
Creation is beginningless and endless... The birth, life, and destruction of a universe constitutes a cycle.
Successive universes are composed of animate and inanimate beings... Achievement of liberation is possible to human beings alone.
At the very beginning of each cycle, rsis are born into the world. The record of their meditations constitutes the Vedas.
The gods of the Hindu are different from God, the one supreme being.
Brahmâ (different from Brahman) was meditating on his creator when there was manifested within the shrine of his heart the eternal word Om, followed by the wisdom of the Vedas.
On Vaisampayana's order, Yajnavalkya spewed from his mouth all that he had learned. His fellow disciples assumed the form of tittiri birds and gathered up the lore. The branch of the Yajur called the black Yajur or the Taittiriya, came into being.
On being propitiated, the sun-god taught Yajnavalkya; the portion of the Vedas taught became known as the white Yajur.
For studying Vedas, one must have a Guru. The function of the good teacher is twofold-explain the scriptures, and teach by his life.
2. SAMHITAS, BRAHMANAS, ARANYAKAS
SAMHITAS are collections of mantras, or hymns, most of which sing the praises of one or another personal god.
Absence of pantheism (equating God with forces of the universe).
The different conceptions of God in the Samhitas raises two questions:
1. Why is it that now one god, now another, is lifted to the loftiest position and celebrated as the supreme divinity? It is not henotheism (worship of one God without denying the existence of other gods). It is because "That which exists is One: sages call it by various names."
2. Why is it that in the Vedic hymns we find elementary ideas of God as well as the most advanced? It is not evolution of religious ideas. It is to minister to all according to their needs.
BRAHMANAS are concerned with the details of sacrificial rites and with specific duties and rules of conduct.
Das Gupta believes that in these sacrificial rites is to be found the germ of the law of karma.
Five obligations: to the gods, seers, spirits of the dead, living men, and animals.
ARANYAKAS supplement the Brahmanas. They focus on the spiritual interpretation of the sacrifices. They occupy themselves less with the outward symbol than with the inner reality.
Division of each Veda into Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanisads is based on the principle of dividing life into asramas, or stages.
3. UPANISADS
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
Characteristics of the Upanisads as a whole:
1. Essential homogeneity. The partitions between the Upanisads might be completely done away with, the whole hundred and eight being reduced to one.
2. The rsis were concerned with simply reporting insights, and not with making these insights superficially coherent.
3. Never were ideas set down with less regard for the reader's convenience. No specific form is followed.
BRAHMAN
That which stayed the same, and could therefore be felt as real-in contrast with the things that changed-was called Brahman.
Three answers to the question "What is the relation between Brahman and the universe?"
1. Râmânuja. Brahman and the universe are like soul and body, or like clay and the individual vessels made of clay. Universe and Brahman are not identical, therefore no pantheism.
2. Samkara. There is only Brahman. The universe of name and form is in name and form alone, for Brahman is the only reality.
3. No affirmation whatever regarding Brahman can be made. "His name is silence."
Each of the three views can be explained as a simple reflection of a particular stage of mystic experience.
ATMAN
Somewhere within or behind the tumult is a silent and constant witness, the Atman.
Story of Prajapati, Indra, and Virocana.
Senses of knowledge, senses of action, antahkarana.
Atman is enclosed in a series of sheaths (panca kosa).
Three states of consciousness, and Turiya.
IDENTITY OF BRAHMAN AND ATMAN
Tat tvam asi. Uddalaka's instruction to Svetaketu.
Four mahavakyas: tat tvam asi, aham brahmasmi, prajnanam brahma, ayam atma brahma.
Story of upper bird and lower bird (Mundaka Upanisad).
Story of lioness and lion-sheep.
REALIZATION OF BRAHMAN
The one thing that the Upanisads would have man do is to realize God-enter into union with him.
Two kinds of knowledge-paravidya, higher, by which one knows the changeless reality; and lower, the knowledge of Vedas, and also of grammar, astronomy, etc.
Moksa may be attained either during the course of one's life or at the moment of death.
The whole of nature is like a book the soul is reading. Each life is a page of that book. When the whole book is finished, the soul becomes perfect... It is a delusion that we are born and that we die (Vivekananda).
THE PATH TO REALIZATION
Realization is to be achieved through two types of spiritual discipline, both of which are essential:
1. Observation of moral laws: The moral laws are summed up in the single principle of self-control. The ultimate moral ideal is complete self-abnegation, the utter renunciation of all selfish and personal desires.
2. The practice of meditation: To be preceded by hearing from a guru and reflection. Meditation is concentration upon the truth aham brahmasmi.
4: THE AUXILIARY SCRIPTURES
While Vedas (sruti) are God-made, the auxiliary scriptures are man-made.
1. Epics. Known as itihasa or history. Two principal works, Ramayana and Mahabharata.
2. Smrtis. Gita is often called smrti.
3. Puranas. Eighteen in number, chief of which is Bhagavatam.
4. Tantras. Saving mankind by spreading the scriptures.
The epics in Indian culture
The Ramayana
Story of the Ramayana
Interpretation of the Ramayana: Adhyatma Ramayana.
The Yoga-Vasishtha
The Mahabharata
Story of the Mahabharata
Comment on the Mahabharata
5: THE BHAGAVAD-GITA
The teacher and the disciple
The teachings of the Gita
Commentaries upon the Gita are numerous.
The doctrine of renunciation
The battlefield of Kuruksetra
The Gita also regards non-resistance as the highest virtue, but does not say that all people under all circumstances must practice it.
Is nirvana compatible with work in the world?
The ultimate reality: God and avatar
Ethics and moral disciplines
The yogas
Selections from the Bhagavad-Gita
6: THE SMRTIS, THE PURANAS, THE TANTRAS
6.1. THE SMRTIS
Smrtis embody the laws formulated by saints and sages.
Of all the Smrtis, the Code of Manu possesses the highest authority.
6.2. THE PURANAS
There are 18 Puranas, six each devoted to Visnu, Brahma and Siva.
The Bhagavatam is the most popular of all the Puranas. It has 12 books; the tenth tells Krsna's story, and the eleventh contains instructions to Uddhava.
Cosmology has a definite place in all of the Puranas.
6.3. THE TANTRAS
Tantras are scriptures by means of which knowledge is spread in order to save humanity from ignorance. They are also known as Agamas (revelations).
Original Tantras are divided into three main groups-Vaisnava, Saiva and Sakta. Sakta Agamas are the most popular.
Tantras are divided into three parts: sadhana, siddhi and philosophy. The philosophy of the Tantras is based on the Upanisads and is non-dualistic.
6.4. SADHANA AND SIDDHI
Tantras are primarily practical scriptures on Sadhana. Sadhanas should be undertaken only with the help of a guru. Two kinds of diksa (initiation) are sambhavi or sakti (direct vision through supreme teacher) and mantri. Four forms of worship are brahma-sadbhava, meditation, japa, image worship.
A most important portion of the Tantras deals with kundalini yoga.
7: JAINISM
7.1. WHAT IS JAINISM?
A Jain is one who believes in conquering the flesh in order to attain to that supreme purity which leads to infinite knowledge. Rsabha was the first and Mahavira the last of the 24 tirthankaras.
7.2. THE GOAL OF JAINISM
Jainism denies the existence of a First Cause, or creator of the universe. It does believe however in the divinity of every soul and in the perfected soul as the paramatman.
Siddha paramesthin and arhat (jivanmukta) are the top two of the five stages of human evolution.
As the soul comes into contact with the world outside, the karmic molecules flow in (âsrava) towards it, in the first stage in karmic bondage.
7.3. THE WAY TO FULFILMENT
Moksa is achieved through triratna-right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct (the five vratas).
7.4. JAIN METAPHYSICS
Tattvas (ultimate reals): Jiva and ajiva.
Six Dravyas (substances): Jiva, pudgala (matter), dharma (principle of motion), adharma (principle of rest), akasa, kâla (time). The first five are astikâyas (spatial); the last five are ajiva.
Seven Tattvas (principles): Jiva, ajiva, Âsrava (flowing in or karmic molecules that bind the jiva), bandha (bondage to the karmana body), samvara (the checking of fresh karmas for the jiva), nirjara (the shedding of karmas), moksa.
Nine padarthas (categories): The seven tattvas, punya and pâpa.
7.5. JAIN LOGIC AND THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
Five types of knowledge: mati (ordinary cognition), sruti, avadhi (psychic), manahparyâya (knowledge of others' minds), and kevala (nirvana).
Jainism is pluralistic realism, since it asserts the reality of both spirit and non-spirit.
8: BUDDHISM
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Life of Buddha
Original Buddhistic teachings are preserved in 3 collections called the tripitaka (three baskets)-vinayapitaka (rules for monks), suttapitaka (tales), and abhidhammapitaka (doctrines).
8.3. Religion as Realization
8.4. Is Buddhism Pessimistic?
Four noble truths which Buddha taught are:
1. That there is suffering.
2. That there is a cause of suffering.
3. That suffering can be overcome.
4. That there is a way to overcome it.
8.5. The Philosophy of Flux and Nirvana
The figure of the torch whirled rapidly around so as to create a circle of fire.
8.6. The Ultimate Reality
Buddha stresses the impermanence of the flux, while the upanisads stress the reality behind the flux.
8.7. The Causes of Suffering
In this wheel of existence (bhava-cakra), the first in the series is ignorance (avijja)-the root cause of all suffering.
8.8. The Way of Peace
The four truths: Noble conduct of life, noble earnestness in meditation, noble kind of wisdom, and noble salvation of freedom.
Buddha insists upon the continual strengthening of the higher will (as contrasted with the lower will to satisfy thirst) to rise above the flux of life.
Eightfold middle path: Right view (or faith), aspiration, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and contemplation.
8.9. The Eightfold Path
8.10. Later Schools of Buddhism
8.11. Selected Passages from the Dhammapada
9. THE SIX SYSTEMS OF THOUGHT: GENERAL REMARKS.
The six systems of Hindu philosophy are concerned with the second of the three steps-hearing the truth, reasoning upon it, and meditating upon it.
3 groups based on metaphysical similarities: Kanâda's Vaisesika and Gotama's Nyaya, Samkhya and Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
Western psychology identifies consciousness with mind, being with thought, and thought with the soul or the self; whereas Indian psychology distinguishes mind from consciousness.
10. NYAYA-VAISESIKA.
Vaisesika is the older of the two. The two systems are regarded by all authorities as constituting one school of philosophy.
10.1. Common Doctrine.
The objective of the philosophy is to expound dharma (virtue) so that men may have abhyudaya (unfoldment) and attain nisreyasa (highest good). Nisreyasa is attainable through immediate perception of the ultimate realities of self and the universe. These 7 ultimate realities-padarthas or categories-are:
1. Dravya (substance): The only one of the seven padarthas that has an independent existence. The remaining six depend upon it. Dravyas are nine in number-self, mind, the five elements, time and space.
2-7. Guna (quality), karma (motion), sâmânya or jâti (generality), visesa (particularity), samavâya (necessary relation), and abhâva (negation). Abhava is not mentioned by Kanada as a padartha.
The conception of God: Man's self jivatman is distinguished from paramatman, the supreme self.
The Law of Causation: Effect is regarded as non-existent before its actual appearance.
10.2. Differences.
Vaisesika begins with the conception of being, while Nyaya begins with knowing. Vaisesika has 7 categories while Nyaya has 16.
10.3. The Nyaya-Vaisesika: Way to Liberation.
Ignorance, which is the cause of bondage, is a positive error or false knowledge. Liberation is through understanding the different categories and realizing the true nature of the self, which can be done through worship of God, devotion, and self-surrender.
Liberation comes after release from the body. Jivanmukti is not formally recognized by this school.
11. THE SAMKHYA SYSTEM.
11.1. Date and Origin.
11.2. The Purpose and Goal of Philosophy.
The supreme goal of life is to put an end completely to the three kinds of suffering (adhyatmika, âdhibhautika, âdhidaivika). The cause of misery is wrong knowledge by which one identifies purusa with prakrti.
11.3. Realism.
Prakrti is a mixture of happiness, misery, and delusion. Samkhya's realism avoids the two extremes of Western thought-that things are precisely as they are apprehended, and that the mind makes its own images independently of any objective reality.
11.4. Dualism.
Samkhya is dualistic for it postulates two ultimate realities, purusa and prakrti.
11.5. Prakrti.
Antahkarana (composed of intellect, ahamkara and manas), the senses, and matter (the objective universe) are all products of prakrti. Antahkarana, by its proximity to purusa appears intelligent, like the bar of iron borrowing its heat from fire.
This universe of mind and matter is a transformation of prakrti. Prakrti is the sum of three gunas or forces in a state of equilibrium.
11.6. The Gunas.
Prakrti and every object in the universe evolved from prakrti consists of these three gunas.
11.7. Cosmic Evolution.
This heterogeneous universe is a development (srsti) out of homogeneous prakrti, and to prakrti it returns. The effect is a transformation of the cause. Evolution is the gradual unfoldment of what is involved, and the only condition for the fulfillment of the process is the removal of barriers.
The first product of evolution is mahat (cosmic apparatus). Next comes buddhi (individual apparatus). Then come ahamkara, manas, five organs of perception, five organs of action, five tanmatras, five gross elements.
11.8. Perception and the Sources of Knowledge.
Perception: Objects, senses, sense organs or brain centers, manas, ahamkara, buddhi, purusa.
Knowledge derived from the senses and through sense activity is known as perception. Inference and Aptavakya are two other sources of knowledge.
11.9. Purusa.
Purusas are infinite in number. Jiva is purusa in association with the buddhi, manas, the senses, and the body.
When purusa knows himself in reality, that is seership. Then, as the gross body dies, purusa attains complete freedom and is detached from the subtle body also.
12. THE YOGA SYSTEM OF PATANJALI
12.1. Introduction.
Truth is of two kinds-scientific or empirical knowledge, and transcendental or yogic knowledge. To develop supersensuous power is to practice genuine religion.
12.2. Conception of God in Yoga Philosophy.
Unlike Samkhya, Yoga philosophy accepts God. Isvara is a special kind of being who is untouched by ignorance. However, Isvara is not the creator of the universe.
The word which expresses the God is Om. Isvara conditioned by maya, first manifests himself as the sphota, the inexpressible Word, out of which he then evolves as the concrete, sensible world. This sphota has one word as its only possible symbol and this is Om.
12.3. What Yoga is.
Yoga is the control of thought-waves in the citta (citta is made up of three components-manas, buddhi, and ahamkara). When the citta is made tranquil, knowledge of the Self is gained.
First we have to overcome the painful thought-waves by raising waves which are not painful. Ultimately we should overcome even the thought-waves which are good.
Spiritual control comes from practice and non-attachment.
12.4. How to Become a Yogi.
Concentration is attained through faith, strenuousness, recollectedness, absorption, and illumination.
Kriya yoga (accessory disciplines of yoga) consists of austerity, study, and the dedication of fruits of one's work to God.
12.5. The Goal of Yoga.
The goal of yoga is to eradicate the five pain-bearing obstructions-ignorance, egoism, attachment, aversion, and the desire to cling to life-and thus to remove the causes of suffering.
Experiencer gains knowledge in seven stages-realization that wisdom is within; cessation of pain; samadhi; state of consciousness following samadhi; freedom from need of the mind and the objective world; freedom from impressions and gunas; union with the atman.
12.6. The Limbs of Yoga.
12.7. Yoga and Occult Powers.
12.8. Samadhi or Transcendental Consciousness.
13. THE PURVA MIMAMSA
Jaimini, the compiler of the Mimamsa sutras.
The two main objectives of Mimamsa philosophy are
1. To establish the authority of the Vedas as the incontrovertible source of all knowledge. It declares that the Vedas are apauruseya (self-revealed). It denies their authorship even to God. It is not clear whether Mimamsa at all accepts an omnipotent God.
2. To explain the true meaning of the purva or earlier portion of the Vedas. The word Mimamsa denotes the reasoning process to be followed for understanding. It explains the Vedas as essentially injunctions concerning the performance of the sacred rites, and it subordinates the Upanisads.
True religious life is the observance of dharma, or religious duties and ceremonial rites, which lead to heaven. Attainment of heaven is the primary objective in life. Mimamsa gives no specific attention to the problem of self.
14. THE UTTARA-MIMAMSA OR THE VEDANTA SUTRAS
The sutras contain four chapters:
1. Brahman, his relation to the world and to the soul of man.
2. Refute objections to the views expressed in chapter 1.
3. Methods of attaining Brahman.
4. Fruits of the knowledge of Brahman.
Perception and inference are the two sources of all knowledge. Badarayana identifies perception or direct divine insight with sruti particularly the Upanisads, and inference with smrti-the Gita, the Mahabharata, and the laws of Manu.
Brahman is the material as well as the efficient cause of the universe.
BOOK 5 (CHAPTERS 15-25): VEDANTA AND ITS GREAT EXPONENTS
15: GAUDAPADA.
Regarded by Indian authorities as the first Vedantic philosopher.
15.1. The Karika.
A commentary on Mandukya Upanisad.
15.2. The Philosophy of Experience.
Philosophy must consider not only our experiences in the waking state but those in other states of consciousness also.
Radhakrishnan's two criticisms:
The theory that considers everything to be unreal may itself be an unreality. Reply: The supreme good is not unreal but something that you already have.
If we have to play the game of life, we cannot do so with the conviction that the play is a show and all the prizes in it mere blanks. Reply: Can we play the game of life well if we take life itself as a reality?
16: SAMKARA.
16.1. Introduction.
16.2. Life of Samkara.
He wrote the poem called moha mudgaram (the shattering of illusion) or bhaja Govindam, after the death of his father.
He wrote the manisa pancakam, after meeting the candala near the Ganga.
Converting Mandana Misra to monasticism.
16.3. The Spirit of Samkara's Philosophy.
Mind and matter, finite objects and their relations are a misreading of Brahman and nothing more.
16.4. The Nature of the Apparent World.
Two types of illusions:
1. Private illusions of the individual-prâtibhâsika (illusory)-like dreams.
2. Universal or world illusion-vyavahârika (phenomenal).
These two kinds of illusions are also different from those ideas which are altogether unreal and imaginary (like the son of a barren woman).
The world is and is not. It is neither real nor unreal. This paradox simply recognizes the existence of mâyâ.
16.5. Superimposition, or Mâyâ
The theory of superimposition (vivartavâda) is inseparably linked with the theory of causality.
16.6. Mâyâ: A Statement of Fact as Well as a Principle.
Superimposition is the apparent presentation to consciousness by the memory of something previously observed elsewhere.
Brahman is not non-objective in the absolute sense. For Brahman is the object of the ego-idea.
The superimposition of the ego-idea upon Existence is our first and most important act as human beings.
Two stages in the process of superimposition:
1. Ego-idea is superimposed upon the inner self, the existence-reality.
2. The ego-idea, reaching outward as it were, identifies itself with the body, etc.
Maya as a universal principle is different from ignorance (avidyâ) which is individual.
16.7. Brahman and Îsvara.
Isvara is Brahman united with maya-the combination which creates, preserves, and dissolves the universe. Isvara is God personified, God with attributes.
We can never become Isvara, because Isvara is above and distant from our human personality. No one will acquire the power of creating, ruling or dissolving the universe, since that power belongs to Isvara alone.
16.8. The Problem of Evil.
Vedanta disagrees with both the answers to the problem of evil-that evil is educational, and that evil does not exist at all. The reality is beyond good and evil.
Problem of evil with respect to Isvara is handled by the doctrine of karma.
Two kinds of maya:
1. Avidyâ (evil or ignorance)-that which causes us to move farther away from the Self and obscures our knowledge of the truth.
2. Vidyâ (good or knowledge in a relative sense)-that which enables us to come nearer to the Self by removing the veil of ignorance.
16.9. The Supreme Goal.
What is so attractive about Vedanta is its undogmatic, experimental approach to truth.
17: BHÂSKARA.
Bhedâbhedavâda, the doctrine of identity in difference, originated by Oudulumi.
17.1. The Philosophy of Identity in Difference.
Brahman is the formless personal God who in his causal state is transcendental. In his aspect as effect, he has evolved into the empirical universe. The universe is the cause actualized though in part only, since the cause has not exhausted itself in the effect.
As effect, Brahman is both jiva and the world. He is endowed with power of two kinds: bhogya, the kind which evolves as the objective universe, and bhoktr, the kind which evolves as living souls. This power of Brahman is not maya, but is real in the absolute sense.
Brahman is not merely the universe of name and form-he is transcendental as well.
Individual souls are many and they are parts of Brahman. They are related to him as the rays of the sun to the sun. In the state of bondage, the individual souls are different from God, and in the state of liberation, they become one with him. But the union with Brahman is possible only after death.
Means of achieving union with Brahman: Non-attachment, being in the world and yet not of it, and worship of Brahman and meditation upon him.
18: YÂMUNA.
Born in 953, in the line of Alwars, one of the two strong advocates of Visistadvaita (the other being Râmânuja).
God is the whole, of which individual souls are the parts. We are related to him as are the waves of the ocean to the ocean. The universe is a transformation of God. God is its soul; the visible world is his body.
All-consuming love for God, and self-surrender to him are the ideals. The highest ideal is to take refuge in the Lord and surrender oneself completely to him.
19. RÂMÂNUJA.
God and the souls of men are not the same, though they are not separate from each other. The highest ideal is to love and worship God and surrender ourselves completely to him. The material world and human beings, though different, have a real existence of their own as the body of Brahman, who is their soul and controlling power. Apart from Brahman, they are literally nonentities. This is adhvaitha (non-dualism) with vishesha (qualifications), because it admits the plurality both of matter and of souls.
19.1. LIFE OF RÂMÂNUJA.
Râmânuja was born at Shrîperumbudhur in southern India in 1017 A.D. He finally made Shrîrangam his headquarters, and passed away in 1137 A.D.
19.2. VISHISHTÂDHVAITHA-VÂDHA OF RÂMÂNUJA.
Knowledge is not self-luminous (as Shankara claims) but is always relative. There is always a distinction between subject and object. Râmânuja does not admit nirvikalpa samâdhi, the unitary consciousness, the experience of self as one with Brahman.
What Shankara calls mâyâ, Râmânuja calls shakthi (power), which in its nature is real and eternally coexistent with Brahman. Râmânuja does not accept the impersonal, attributeless Brahman of Shankara, but rather an eternal personal Brahman, the repository of all blessed qualities.
19.3. THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE.
Perception, inference, and scripture are valid sources of knowledge, and also, each on its own level, as an affirmation of reality. Unlike Shankara, Râmânuja does not admit a distinction between illusory perception and true perception, for even in illusory perception, there is some perception of reality. Thus all experience has its validity.
Râmânuja's theory of dharma-bhûtha-jñâna: Consciousness is an attribute and not the thing itself.
After man has been purified, he may have the immediate intuition of God. This immediate intuition is not the highest transcendental consciousness described in the Upanishadhs and by Shankara as thurîya and as nirvikalpa samâdhi by the yogis, but rather it is a transcendental consciousness of God in which there still remains the ego as distinct from Him. The experience is described as savikalpa samâdhi by the yogis.
19.4. BRAHMAN OR GOD.
Brahman is determinate and can therefore be defined by a statement of his essential attributes--sathyam (real), jñânam (conscious), and anantham (infinite). Shankara does not consider these as attributes of Brahman.
The universe is composed of cith (the sentient) and acith (the non-sentient). Cith and acith have their source in Brahman. He is the indwelling self within all and the ruler of all.
Brahman is the material as well as the efficient cause of the universe.
God, though he has transformed Himself into the universe of sentient and non-sentient forms, remains distinct from them. Matter is the object of experience, individual souls are the experiencing subjects, and God is the lord and ruler of all. God is above and beyond matter (which is changing phenomena) and distinct from individual souls caught in its meshes. Though immanent, He is transcendent.
Brahman is related to the cosmos as the soul is related to the body. In the soul-and-body connection between Brahman and the cosmos are included the three relations--support and the supported, controller and the controlled, lord and the servant.
19.5. JÎVAS OR INDIVIDUAL SOULS.
The finite self is not a separate self-existent entity, but an organ, an element of Brahman. It is a part of Brahman, essentially different from Him but inseparably bound to Him. The finite self is anu or atomic like the point of a goad, though it admits of no spatial division from the fact that it is a spirit. The finite self, then, is an essential attribute of God; and as substance and attribute, though inseparably associated, are yet absolutely distinct from each other, so God as substance is absolutely distinct from the individual soul. As inseparably associated with God, the individual self is eternal; and as distinct from Him, it has a personality of its own and a free will.
19.6. THE SUPREME GOAL.
Kainkarya or living in the service of God is the supreme ideal.
Râmânuja did not believe in jîvan-mukthi (liberation in this life) but rather in vidheha-mukthi (liberation after death). The self realizes union with God as his body, his part, his attribute. Never is there a dissolution of jîvahood (individual personality).
Release is not freedom in embodiment but freedom from embodiment. It refers to the return of the soul to his home in the absolute (personal God).
19.7. THE WAYS AND MEANS OF ATTAINMENT.
Râmânuja laid stress upon bhakthi yoga, the path of love.
Attainment of bhakthi comes through discrimination, control of passions, habitual practice of religious disciplines, sacrificial work, purity, strength, and suppression of excessive joy.
When love for God arises in the heart, the highest attainment comes in the surrendering of our wills to God's will (prapaththi or self-surrender) and in our living, literally, in the service of God.
20: NIMBÂRKA.
Founder of one of the four schools of Vaishnavism (other three being Râmânuja, Madhva and Vallabha).
Nimbarka's philosophy remains unique in that it never attacked other schools of philosophy.
Nimbarka's philosophy of bhedabheda or dualism in nondualism: Brahman has two aspects, impersonal and personal. In his personal aspect, Brahman possesses attributes, and from him as person has issued the universe of name and form.
Essential difference between Bhaskara and Nimbarka: According to Bhaskara the individual soul is a part of Brahman only so long as it remains in ignorance; in knowledge it becomes one with him. Nimbarka declares that the individual soul is a part of Brahman, and is also one with him (like wave is one with and also different from the ocean) , both in the state of ignorance and in that of knowledge.
Nimbarka lays stress upon both knowledge and devotion as means of attaining freedom.
21: MÂDHWA.
Both knower and object of knowledge must be real, for otherwise no knowledge would be possible. All knowledge is relative.
The world is real because it is perceived as such. The fact that an object is fleeting does not mean that it is not real.
Madhwa's whole philosophy is based upon the idea of difference or distinction-distinctions between God, individual souls, and matter.
The universe is divided into two categories, independent and dependent beings. God is the only independent being.
22: VALLABHA.
Brahman in his aspect of love is the center of Vallabha's teaching. Brahman is personal. He also has a spiritual body. A lover of God can realize mystic union with him in his spiritual body.
Vallabha admits the efficacy of the paths of knowledge, selfless work, and devotion, if one would attain spiritual growth.
23: SRI CAITANYA.
23.1. Sri Caitanya's Philosophy of Love.
For Caitanya, God was Krsna, the God of love, the Krsna of Vrindavan.
To make manifest the infinite love already existent in the soul, one must practice sâdhan-bhakti or disciplinary devotion.
Of the manifestation of divine love, there are five stages-sânta, dâsya, sakhya, vâtsalya, and madhura.
To love Krsna as the beloved bridegroom is the ultimate goal. The final step is prem-vilâs-vivarta, the truth of mystic union, wherein there is no longer a distinction between the lover and the beloved.
24: SRI RAMAKRSNA.
Two watchwords Sri Ramakrsna set before mankind were renunciation and service.
Renunciation means deification-seeing god everywhere and in everything.
25: EPITOME.
Four fundamental ideas of Indian religion:
1. God is.
2. God can be realized.
3. To realize God is the supreme goal of human existence.
4. God can be realized in many ways.
Last Revised: 9 Nov 2002
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